Credit Appraisal and Credit Risk Management - 13437 Words

MANAGING CORE RISKS IN BANKING: CREDIT RISK MANAGEMENT Industry Best Practices BANGLADESH BANK CREDIT RISK MANAGEMENT Industry Best Practices PREPARED FOR: BANGLADESH BANK PREPARED BY: FOCUS GROUP ON CREDIT RISK MANAGEMENT Team Co-ordinator: Team Members: Sudhir Chandra Das Ali Reza Iftekhar Niaz Habib A.G. Sarwar Brian J. McGuire Naser Ezaz Bijoy Page 2 INTRODUCTION: Risk is inherent in all aspects of a commercial operation, however for Banks and financial institutions, credit risk is an essential factor that needs to be managed. Credit risk is the possibility that a borrower or counter party will fail to meet its obligations in accordance with agreed terms. Credit risk, therefore, arises from the bank’s dealings with or†¦show more content†¦The Lending Guidelines should be approved by the Managing Director/CEO Board of Directors of the bank based on the endorsement of the bank’s Head of Credit Risk Management and the Head of Corporate/Commercial Banking. (Section 2.1 of these guidelines refers) Any departure or deviation from the Lending Guidelines should be explicitly identified in credit applications and a justification for approval provided. Approval of loans that do not comply with Lending Guidelines should be restricted to the bank’s Head of Credit or Managing Director/CEO Board of Directors. T he Lending Guidelines should provide the key foundations for account officers/relatio nship managers (RM) to formulate their recommendations for approval, and should include the following:  § Industry and Business Segment Focus The Lending Guidelines should clearly identify the business/industry sectors that should constitute the majority of the bank’s loan portfolio. For each sector, a clear indication of the bank’s appetite for growth should be indicated (as an example, Textiles: Grow, Cement: Maintain, Construction: Shrink). This will provide necessary direction to the bank’s marketing staff. Types of Loan Facilities The type of loans that are permitted should be clearly indicated, such as Working Capital, Trade Finance, Term Loan, etc. Single Borrower/Group Limits/Syndication Details ofShow MoreRelatedEvaluating The Effectiveness Of Credit Risk Management Tools Essay1565 Words   |  7 Pagesloans arise from credit risk or default risk which as defined by Jorion(2003) is the risk of an economic loss from the failure of a counterparty to fulfill its contractual obligations. Its effect is measured by the cost of replacing cash flows if the other party defaults. Credit risk can thus be seen to contribute significantly to the profitability of an organization and hence the need to hedge against such risk. This study aims to assess the effectiveness of credit risk management tools which areRead MoreThe Trend Of Bad Loans Of The Bank During The Past Five Years Essay1324 Words   |  6 Pagesnational inflation causes many businesses to fold up therefore rendering those businesses that have accessed loan facilities unable to pay up. High interest rates on loans was the second most cited reason for loan defaults amongst Moreover poor credit appraisal, ineffective monitoring, death and diversion of funds were also some of the factors that accounted for bad loans. 5.2.3 To determine the sector that records higher bad loans Research question three sought to determine the sector that recordsRead MoreThe Importance Of A Credit Risk Management973 Words   |  4 Pagesin process of controlling credit risk management by the banking industries from all over the world. Proper consideration of these factors in for the proper credit risk management process is very essential. Thus the study of these factors is always helpful for the banks. 2.2.1.1 Importance of proper policy for risk management in banks While looking at the events of financial crisis of the various countries it can be said that misunderstanding of the development of the risk factors from their rootsRead MoreSignificant Class of Transactions Template3261 Words   |  14 Pages Significant class of transactions/significant disclosure process name: | Credit origination - Transaction processing | | Significant class of transactions/ significant disclosure process owner: | Credit Policty at HODebt management division Client Division | | We obtain an understanding of the significant classes of transactions (SCOTs) and significant disclosure processes to identify and understand the risks of material misstatement at the assertion level (i.e., what can go wrongs (WCGWs))Read MoreCredit Appraisal System9370 Words   |  38 Pagesto analysis of credit appraisal system with reference to Axis Bank. Axis banks one of private sector banks in India, which provides loans and advances when it is required by individuals or companies and accepts the deposits from the public. while providing loans advances to the public it faces number of problems like : * Of interest loans * Default interest security inadequate OBJECTIVES: * To study the credit appraisal methods. * To study existing credit appraisal system . * ToRead MoreRisk Management Is Not Avoiding Or Eliminating Risk Essay1622 Words   |  7 Pageshttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=78c7fTnLCfc The essence of risk management is not avoiding or eliminating risk but deciding which risks to exploit, which ones to let pass through to investors and which ones to avoid or hedge. Risk management prevents an organization from suffering unacceptable loss that can cause failure or can materially damage its competitive position. Risk management should be a continuous and developing process which runs throughout the organization‟s strategy and the implementationRead MoreHigh Cost Mortgages : A New Office Of Housing Counseling1498 Words   |  6 Pages Subtitle C – High-Cost Mortgages redefines High-cost mortgage as a â€Å"consumer Credit transaction that is secured by the consumer’s principal dwelling†. These include credit transactions secured by a consumer’s principal dwelling whose interest rate is 6.5% more than the prime rate for similar transactions, subordinated mortgages secured by a consumers principal dwelling, points and fees, excluding mortgage insurance, and if the points and fees can be collected more than 36 months after a loan. NewRead MoreProject Finance and Loan Analysis Essay1668 Words   |  7 PagesIt is increasingly emerging as the preferred alternative to finance fixed assets and other large-scale projects. As a study, Project Finance includes understanding the rationale for project financing, how to prepare the financial plan, assess the risks, design the financing mix, and raise the funds. As per the International Project Finance Association, ‘Project Finance’ is defined as â€Å"The financing of long-term infrastructure, industrial projects and public services, based upon a non-recourse (ProjectRead MoreThe Risks Of The Wholesale And The Smes.credit Risk1561 Words   |  7 Pagesbusinesses such that they have to show their credit worthiness before they are given a loan. The UK has been fluctuating due to global inflation rates and therefore this has caused uncertainty of the business. This has made the lending institutions to be strict in evaluating the credit risks of the wholesale and the SMEs.Credit risk will measure the probability of a business getting a loss due to a business failure of settling loans. This convectional credit risks results from the the possibilities of defaultingRead MorePersonal Finanace Plan1061 Words   |  4 PagesPersonal Loan $20,000 Credit Card Balance $4,500 Total $231,000 This indicates that while there are significant liabilities, most notably in the remaining mortgage balance which relates to the specific property owned. In terms of financial health the value of the assets is considerably higher than the remaining liabilities which is a positive indicator. However, there are perhaps more liabilities than would be considered optimal particularly with regards to the Personal Loan and Credit Card Balance which

Biblical Truths Of The Christian Bible - 915 Words

1)PREFACE I) We unequivocally acknowledge the Christian Bible as the inspired-written Word of the living God given to humanity by way of dual authorship human and Divine for the purpose of revealing God the Father and His will for humankind; therefore comprehending the Godly priority and importance of knowing and obeying its truths; we are passionately committed to teaching Scripture in truth with clarity and do diligence under the anointing and the illuminating light of the Holy Spirit with the divine authority of the Lord Jesus Christ our Savior II) Furthermore, we are fully convinced that our Divine-calling mission and central goal of the body of Christ and to all who have ears to hear is the continual in parting of Biblical truths. Henceforth when the Word of God is preached in expository fashion and systematically taught in line with sound doctrine to the children of God, the servants of Christ become fully equipped with the truth of Scripture that is mature in sound doctrine; thus, not deceived and tossed to and fro by the wiles of the devil through the cunning craftiness of his demonic ministers who twist the plain truth about Scripture by teaching the false doctrines of demons therefore by the consistent teaching of Biblical truth the servants of God will become thoroughly equipped to do the work of the ministry, thus manifesting the fruit of the Spirit and the supernatural gifts of the Holy Ghost; whereby glorifying the Lord Jesus Christ, by exalting his death,Show MoreRelatedFree Essay Is a Scam1711 Words   |  7 Pagesperson as an aggregation of atoms, an open biochemical system in interaction with the environment, a specimen of homo sapiens, an object of beauty, someone who needs deserve my respect and compassion, a brother for whom Christ died. Myers believes Christians must appreciate the essential role of science in nuturing curiosity and humility. This will put a wrongheaded notion about existence to an empirical test. The levels-of-explanation view believes humans are best understood in terms of hierarchy ofRead MoreA Study On Biblical Inerrancy Essay1200 Words   |  5 PagesCASE STUDY ANALYSIS #2 (Biblical Inerrancy) By Tammy Alexander As I read this case study on biblical inerrancy, I needed more information. When I looked up the word inerrancy and saw that it meant lack of error, I didn’t realize the magnitude of information there was to prove the Bible isn’t true or has errors in it. After reading a majority of the book, Making Sense of Your World by Phillips, Brown, and Stonestreet, I have a better understanding of the different types of worldviews there are thatRead MoreThe Doctrine Of Biblical Inerrancy1076 Words   |  5 PagesThe Bible has challenged many people as a piece of literature containing history, poetry, and written letters. Some would argue that the contents of Scripture are inaccurate, however would still agree that it carries significant value as a piece of literature. Conversely, those who ascribe to the teachings of the Bible are dealt with questions about the authority and inerrancy of Scripture. It is becoming increasingly important that Christians understand and embrace the full inerrancy of ScriptureRead MoreBible as the Inspired Word of God Essay1103 Words   |  5 PagesBible as the Inspired Word of God The Bible is the work of various authors, who lived in different continents and wrote in different eras. Furthermore, much of the text does not claim to have been dictated by God and is not always God speaking to people. In parts it consists of people speaking to God, as in the Psalms, and people speaking to people, as in the New Testament letters written by Paul. In light of this, some maintain that it is not possible to treat theRead MoreMoral Relativism And The Biblical Worldview Of What Is Right And Wrong950 Words   |  4 Pagesdo not represent moral truths, but are effected by the environment in person’s life. Christians have a worldview that believes otherwise based on the biblical worldview of what is right and wrong proposed by James Sire. Issues that are ethically questionable but not specifically banned in Leviticus, or in the Bible in general, such as gambling, drinking alcohol, and divorce are examples of how even seemingly unclear topics are still outlined by God. The Lord gives Christians the instinctive knowledgeRead MoreCritique on Kingdom Education Essay893 Words   |  4 Pageshave a biblical worldview. This worldview is taught through Bible stories, but is also incorporated into every subject and into educational methods that reflect a biblical philosophy. Ultimately, parents are responsible before God for their child; however, it is the role of the church and the school to support the parents in their God given responsibility. In Kingdom education, these three cords must work in harmony to evangelize, discipline and train each child to incorporate a biblical worldviewRead MoreSeized By Truth: Reading The Bible As Scripture Is Written1048 Words   |  5 PagesSeized by Truth: Reading the Bible as Scripture is written by Joel Green, a New Testament scholar, and Professor of New Testament Interpretation at Fuller Theological Seminary in Pasadena, California. Prof. Green, has participated and contributed greatly on a wide range of topics related to both New Testament scholarship and theology. In Green’s book, he states Reading the Bible as you would read any other book does not support a reading of the Bible as Scripture (2). â€Å"This way of engaging theRead MoreGlobal Missions Paper1189 Words   |  5 Pagesof the Latin American people. In 1973 the Chicago Declaration was an effort to balance civic responsibility with Christian belief. Twenty years later as crisis arose it was renewed. Samuel Escobar was a leader who was among the first to know that a special methodology was necessary to get people to work together based on shared beliefs. His theology is structured by reevaluating Biblical disclosures and relating them to both social and political realities as he aims his concentration on a theologyRead MoreAPOL 104 QUIZ 1 Essay1014 Words   |  5 Pages1. The Bible Is not Historically Accurate. False 2. The Bible was composed in three languages Hebrew, Greek, and some Aramaic 3. The Bible has Scientific Knowledge Before Its Time. The Earth. Wisdom that predates the earliest scientific discoveries. The ocean floor contains deep valleys (2 Sam. 22:16; Job 38:16; Ps. 18:15) and towering mountains (Jonah 2:6). The ocean contains underwater springs (Genesis 7:11; Job 38:16; Proverbs 8:28). There are other examples. 4. Was written by someRead MoreWomen And The African American Race1220 Words   |  5 Pages Into Grimkà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s adult life, she moved north and further developed her beliefs through her relationship with God and devotion to her Bible, as well as, historical documents like the Constitution. These developed beliefs seen in her published works, such as her â€Å"Appeal to the Christian Women of the South.† Through this letter to southern women, Grimkà © uses her biblical beliefs to structure her position and approach as an effective advocate for women and slaves. Grimkà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s use of powerful writing empowers

Active and Passive Indexing Free Essays

The first index fund began in 1971, with $6 million funded by Samsonite, the luggage-maker. Since then, there have been many arguments of whether an active index fund or a passive index fund offers better long-term results for investors. Index funds are already the fastest growing sector of the mutual fund business. We will write a custom essay sample on Active and Passive Indexing or any similar topic only for you Order Now From 1986 to 1996, the amount of money invested in index funds grew from $556 million to $65 Billion. And if anything, individual investors have been slow to embrace passive management. Institutional investors invest a far larger percentage of their assets passively. Many individual investors are simply uneducated and unaware of the arguments and experimental evidence supporting passive management. Institutional investors and academics have known for years (many for decades) that passive investing is extremely difficult to beat and that the majority of active investors will fail in their attempt to outperform the market. Active indexers assert they can outperform the marketplace. Passive (index) portfolios state they can mirror the performance of the indices. Both have their good times and their bad times. Active indexers raise cash in times of increased risk and instability while passive indexers remain fully invested. This can be quite painful during times of large declines in the market. Passive portfolios mirror the gains of the indices during roaring bull markets and eventually outperform the majority of active money managers who must remain diversified and who sometimes take on additional risks in an attempt to produce the performance and safety that they have promised their clients. The evidence has piled up during today’s bull market that the average dollar managed by active managers does not keep up with the market index. Finally, indexing is a way to avoid being blind-sided in certain areas of the marketplace. Active management themes can easily find themselves on the wrong side of an investment. There is a perception among investors that a strategy designed to match stock market returns is less risky than a comparable actively managed portfolio. Since the index approach invests in a manner that is most friendly with the market’s natural liquidity, it produces the least disturbance. The passive investor also has diversified his risk. Specific negative things can happen to individual companies or groups. As a passive investor, one is not exposed to any of these things. However, it does not mean you have a risk-free investment. The downside to passive index investors is that they â€Å"fuel the fire† of a market that appreciates well beyond its true value. Index mutual funds must put new money to work†¦ they can not hold cash†¦ and their investors all buy the exact same stocks. When stocks go down, index funds, being fully invested, will receive the ultimate effect of the decline. Combined with this loss is the fact that they will also have to sell shares to cover shareholder redemptions. These funds will get hit harder than many active portfolios with a cash cushion. Most active managers of investment portfolios raise cash as they perceive higher valuations, excessive instability, and extreme risks, therefore; reducing the display to loss during declining markets. Another downside to passive indexing is the impact they have on market instability. This gives the patient active money manager a welcome opportunity to take advantage of stock selection at very attractive prices and, to some extent, time the market in making their decisions of when to buy and when to sell. Index investing is a tricky business that can roil markets. Actively indexed funds have gone upward over the last decade. This has occurred despite the fact that investors have poured huge amounts of money into active funds over this period. The costs of investing in index funds have trended downward as they have become more popular with investors. The costs of active index funds just might decrease in the future, thereby narrowing the cost gap with passive index funds. But all evidence to date has shown just the opposite trend – the costs of active funds continue to go up and the costs of index funds continue to go down. Actively indexed funds typically generate relatively large amounts of taxes while passive index funds generate relatively small amounts. Some of the resulting gap in performance caused by taxes would seemingly be narrowed if the federal government were to lower tax rates. Congress did this at the end of July 1997 when it reduced the maximum long term capital gains tax rate from 28% on investments held more than one year to 20% on investments held 18 months or longer. The tax bill provides that in the year 2001 this rate will be reduced to 18% for investments held five years or longer. Finally, active money managers serve the specific needs of their clients. They manage portfolios based exactly on the investor’s objectives and tolerance for risk. They make decisions based on a stated time frame and they are capable of changing the goals and direction of a portfolio on a moment’s notice. They are the investor’s personal link to the market and the protector of their capital. The value of these services is immeasurable to most investors. One thing that really does not influence the investor as much as it should is the lack of appreciation with respect to the tax consequences of passive index management. The capital gains, created during the year by a fully active index manager, is reported to the IRS, and the investor ends up being taxed. For a taxed investor, the buy-and-hold is a winning strategy. Turnover is the enemy of the investor who pays taxes. Conversely, most investors would be more than happy to pay taxes on the returns produced by active money managers during periods of declining markets. Not many investors prefer losses to earning some gains and interest, even with the tax man waiting. The effect of so many investors buying index funds is that they tend to guard the money market. An investor could actually, in a cost-effective manner, buy and sell the market. The asset funding of active managers, combined with the efficiency of the passive manager, allows one to implement strategies that provide an optimal mix of securities to match a particular scenario, objective, or risk aversion. From time to time, it is possible that the major assets can get out of balance. Investors can run up prices where the lawfulness market is overvalued. When this reaches a untrustworthy level, more self-corrective measures are needed. This is where the expertise of the active manager becomes useful. As an investor, you are always trading off what Jeremy Bentham, the British economist, referred to as the â€Å"pain-pleasure calculus. † Good returns produce pleasure. Bad returns produce pain. An active money manager is always balancing off the pleasure vs. e potential pain. The active manager tends to determine what that balance is and if it finds that the market is deployed otherwise, it works in balancing the portfolio. Tactical asset funding combined with a passively managed portfolio has been called the â€Å"holy grail† of investing by Jonathan Burton, of Dow Jones’ Asset Management magazine. During declining markets, index funds take the full force of the market’s loss. Managers of these funds are forced to sell stocks in order to meet the demand for redemptions as their investors got out of the market. During markets of very little movement, investors quickly drain of insufficient or no returns on their investment. Finally, a philosophy of capital preservation causes the active manager to raise cash, providing a cushion for portfolios during times of extreme risk. Active or passive? Both have their advantages and their risks, but the two are found to be the best long-term plans for both performance and safety. Index (passive) funds are likely to beat active funds, yet the Morningstar data show that 92% of all the money is U. S. stock funds is in active funds. How to cite Active and Passive Indexing, Essay examples

Continuities Changes Over Time Essay (Silk Road Interactions Between 200 B.C.E †1450 C.E.) free essay sample

During the period of time between 200 B.C.E. and 1450 C.E., the silk road underwent many subtle transformations while at the same time holding on to its original purpose. The trade of spices and goods to and from Asia and Europe remained constant, while the materials bartered slowly changed. The political boundaries as well as the national identities of the encompassing countries also were altered. Despite changes in materials, the original purpose of the silk road remained intact throughout this time period. Asian commodities were traded with European merchants along the road and vice versa. Asia’s economy, such as that of China specifically, remained heavily reliant on the money from silk road trade, irregardless of the origin or type of goods that fueled such. Comparably, Europe’s economic status remained fueled by Asian trades. While the basic purpose of the silk road remained mostly unchanged, the goods traded on it and the areas it went through did. We will write a custom essay sample on Continuities Changes Over Time Essay (Silk Road Interactions Between 200 B.C.E – 1450 C.E.) or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page While the silk road originally began on a small scale as a simple route of transport for Eurasian merchants, it later grew into an international necessity, not only economically, but culturally as well. Once exposed to Asian spices, fabrics, etc., Europeans became increasingly â€Å"addicted† to their newfound luxuries. This, in addition to Europe having the same effect on Asia, gradually shaped both cultures. Because of the numerous political changes that took place during this expanse of time, the route travelled by silk road merchants passed through new nations formed at the collapse of the Roman Empire. This, in turn, shaped the identities of additional nations/cultures along the path of the silk road. Overall, the silk road’s basic purpose remained intact from 200 B.C.E. to 1450 C.E., but the specific patterns of interactions that occurred along it did not. Empires fell, new nations were formed, and that brought myriad changes to silk road cultures and the interactions between those that traveled on it.

Clip Analysis Zhantai (2000) Essay Example

Clip Analysis: Zhantai (2000) Essay Introduction: Films have been used as mediums to showcase social transformation. In the Chinese film Platform made by Jia Zhang, this theme is writ large. The film reflects the changing attitudes, beliefs and cultural norms evident in late twentieth century China. It was time when the country was moving towards modernization, leaving behind some of its time-worn traditions. A small clip from the film is chosen for in-depth analysis for this essay. The clip starts at 1:28:30 and ends at1:31:20. Yet, within that short span, most of the main themes in the film could be glimpsed. Through the choice of shot angles and perspectives, behavior and actions of the actors, etc one could study the said themes. This clip is full of deft directorial touches that show how Chinese society is in transition during the last decade of the twentieth century. We will write a custom essay sample on Clip Analysis: Zhantai (2000) specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Clip Analysis: Zhantai (2000) specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Clip Analysis: Zhantai (2000) specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Analysis: Director Jia Zhang skillfully employs visual perspectives to signify social messages. His use of wide angle shots showing the imposing gorge between huge mountains has a dramatic effect of its own. The opening of the clip shows a truck full of people struggling to start-off. The truck is in the dried up gorge with the huge mountainous range in the backdrop. The railway bridge crossing through the mountains is not yet shown. Having given up the attempt to start the truck the driver and his assistant jump out the cabin. A few moments later, the driver returns to his seat and puts on a music cassette. The song that plays is a popular chartbuster called Platform, which is also the name of the film. Though the lyrics are in Chinese the style is decidedly Western, modern and hip. This is Jia Zhang’s way of showing how the Chinese society is changing culturally. Regional differences are being erased in favor of a homogenized national culture which is influenced by the West. (Strictly film school, 2000). As the song Platform starts playing, we see how its lyrics are applicable to the situation the stranded group finds itself in. The lyrics talk about longing for love in the metaphoric language of train arrivals and departures in station platforms. The intended dry humor comes out well as the upbeat march of the song is broken by the distant whistling of a real train. But it is not love the stranded passengers are after. Instead they run toward the distant bridge with the hope of getting a piggyback ride, which could take them out of the wilderness and into safety. One could also read this situation in terms of China’s fast ascent in global economy since the 1980s. The cargo train that zips past at rapid pace is an apt metaphor for this rise in economic prowess. The stranded passengers are the citizens trying to get ahead in life and get out of the mire they find themselves in. Hence, there is rich social comment to be found in the short clip analyzed here. (College of Ar ts and Sciences, 2013) The implicit directorial comment in the clip takes into account the economic, historical and cultural aspects of Chinese society. For example, the stranded passengers in the mountain gorge are mostly young people – a statistically true picture of Chinese population of the time – dominated demographically by the youth. There are men and women in equal number. Their attire is instructive of the social changes. For example, For instance, the costumes worn by members in the group are not traditional Chinese wear. Almost all of the passengers are wearing sweaters and jackets that are indiscernible from what people wear in the West. It depicts a drastic change in culture that young Chinese are now wearing English clothes – they even identify and copy the styles and attitudes that go with the costumes (China Perspectives, 2005). Though appreciative of the modernization of China, director Jia Zhang does not romanticize the trend. This is evident in a couple of key moments in the film clip. The first is the fact that the truck breaks down. It says the methods of mechanization introduced do not always work. Rather than merely disappointing, they could actually cause distress, as the stranded passengers bear witness to. Second, in the last shot of the clip, the young people’s attempt to halt the train is unsuccessful. This is a reality check for them that economic progress alone does not guarantee a life of comfort and safety. The young people are on their own in the wilderness of the mountains and their safety and prospects of survival are not guaranteed. Conclusion: In conclusion, one can read in the clip a statement of warning more broadly applicable to China’s ascent in economic terms – that economic progress and modernization are not ‘end all and be all’ for the country. The passengers’ failed attempt to gain attention by screaming and waving hands is symbolic of dangers facing modern China. Yet, there is a message of hope to be read in the shot as well. We could see in the scene the human spirit and passion in the young people. While their hopes and spirits were temporarily sapped, they remain in their positions clinging to hope that they might be rescued. References: Strictly film school, Zhantai, 2000 [Platform], (2004). 6 May, 2013. Web. College of Arts and Sciences. Platform, (2013). 6 May, 2013. Web. China Perspectives. The World of Jia Zhangki, (2005). 6 May, 2013. Web.

Politics of Subsidies and World Trade

Politics of Subsidies and World Trade Introduction The modern world is characterized by unprecedented levels of interaction between people of different nations and cultures. This phenomena has been promoted by globalization, which is a process typified by the immense integration of economies and cultures.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Politics of Subsidies and World Trade specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As globalization has increased, the volume of international trade has risen with all nations in the world expanding their list of international trade partners. To promote fairness in international trade, various trade-governing bodies have been established to deal with trade rules among nations. One of the issues that these trade-governing bodies such as the World trade Organization (WTO) have had to deal with is subsidies. Most nations regard subsidies as important policy instruments for ensuring their economic well-being in a competitive wor ld market. However, economists contend that subsidies lead to many negative results and adversely affect world trade. This paper will discuss the politics of subsidies and world trade so as to demonstrate that while subsidies have positive and negative impacts, pervasive subsidization is harmful to world trade. Definition of Subsidies The WTO defines a subsidy as a financial contribution by a government or any public body within the territory of a Member (Ryan, 2006, p. 126). Subsidies may be implemented when the government is involved in the direct transfer of such funds as grants or loans to an industry or when the government forgoes taxes that had already been accrued by an industry. Subsidization can also occur when the government provides goods or services that do are not necessary for the entire public but rather beneficial for specific industries. Ryan (2006) states that another way in which subsidies can exist is if a government reduces the price of a primary product with th e aim of giving the country a greater share of the export. Whatever the form they take, subsidies represent assistance from the government to producers or distributors in specific industries. Need for Subsidies Subsidies are an important policy instrument in the international trade system. They provide individual governments with the means through which to pursue industrial development and ensure the livelihoods of their citizens. Subsidies help to prevent the decline of an industry due to intense external competition or high production costs (Anderson, 2010). World trade has exposed local producers in most countries to immense pressure. Sectors such as agricultural production in developed countries have faced stiff competition leading to significant reduction in competitive advantages.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Subsidies are crucial for the industri al development of a country since they enable new technology to compete favorably with mature technologies. Historically, subsidies were responsible for the initial growth and development of commercial air transport (Kim, 2007). When commercial airline were first introduced, they had to compete with well established modes of transportation such as automobiles, ships, and trains. Because of the huge cost of air transport and the safety concerns, the private investors could not succeed in the industry without government support. Huge government subsidies helped the airline industry to develop in its initial stages and become self-reliant. Impacts of Subsidies Positive Impacts Subsidies ensure the survival of vital industries in a country. In most developed nations, the agricultural industry is not competitive since most people are involved in the manufacturing and service industry. In addition to this, the local farmers cannot compete with farmers from developing nations who have l ow production costs leading to cheap food products in the international market. Governments argue that agricultural subsidies are an issue of national concern since food self-sufficiency is integral to national security. Goodman (2010) notes that food security in the US is ensured through farm subsidies, which allow US farmers to stay in business. Without these subsidies, the industry would collapse and the nation would be forced to rely on other countries for its food greatly compromising the independence of the nation. Subsidies help to ensure stability in the market and protect consumers from the volatility of the international trade environment. For example, the world oil prices are constantly fluctuating due to the changing demand for the commodity. Oil is integral for the energy needs of all countries but since most countries do not have this resource, they have to rely on the foreign oil-producing nations. Through subsidization, governments are able to keep petroleum costs lo w and stable therefore promoting industrial development in the country (Kim, 2007). Without subsidization, the economic growth and development of the country would be deterred since operation costs for industries would be markedly higher. Subsidies have promoted the development of alternative energy technologies, therefore increasing the likelihood of energy sustainability in the future. Kim (2007) reveals that subsidies have played a major role in the development of solar power and accelerated the adoption of less polluting technology by industry. Subsidies in alternative energy technologies are offered under the assumption that as the technologies mature and become mainstream; the cost of products will move downwards making governmental assistance unnecessary.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Politics of Subsidies and World Trade specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Negative Impacts Subsidization in the agri cultural sector is harmful to the economic well-being of developing nations. Agriculture has emerged as the most sensitive topic in world trade and subsidization. Shumaker (2007) suggests that the sensitivity of agriculture can be attributed to the vast potential for trade that this industry presents. Each country therefore exhibits a drive to maximize the economic advantages available through agricultural trade for social, economic, and political reasons. Shumaker (2007) observes that most developing countries have few opportunities other than agriculture for trade and development and most of their exports consist of agricultural products. In spite of this reality, developed nations engage in subsidizing to protect their local producers. Farmers in developed nations such as the US exert great political pressures on their government to sustain subsidization and farm protectionist measures. Subsidies have contributed to the poverty experienced by farmers in developing nations. Rivoli (2009) agrees that rich country subsidies to their local farmers have a role to play in the difficulties experienced by farmers in the third world countries. Due to aggressive subsidization by developed nations, prices for agricultural products are kept artificially low since subsidies lead to an overproduction of commodities hence decreasing world market prices. Anderson (2010) reveals that foreign exchange from farming in most developing countries has been depressed by subsidies by governments of richer countries to their local farmers. This statement is corroborated by Rivoli (2009) who documents that a primary effect of US government subsidies for cotton producers is the increase in supply of cotton grown in the US and a decline in world cotton prices by up to 15%. The US domestic subsidy program puts downward pressure on the world price therefore penalizing other exporting countries. Subsidies promote inefficiencies in the market since producers are not penalized for engaging in inefficient practices. Kim (2007) asserts that subsidies prolong the life of inefficient firms and increase the tax burden on the nations citizenry. Subsidies guarantee producers that they will make a profit even if they engage in inefficient practices. The market is prevented from working in its natural way and the producers gain an unfair competitive advantage. Subsidies give unfair advantages to some countries on the international market. The EU and the US engage in export subsidization to promote local production of some goods. While such moves are beneficial to the producers, they lead to trade distorting (Rivoli, 2009).Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Producers from the subsidizing countries have an unfair advantage over producers from countries that do not subsidize their products. This unfair advantage created by subsidies has the potential to damage international trade as nations take up protectionist measures in retaliation to export subsidies by other nations. These retaliations might include trade restrictions and imposition of high tariffs on imports to protect the local market. Such measures are against the trade liberalization efforts of world trade. Addressing the Subsidies Issue The negative effects of subsidies present significant problems in the development of world trade. To address the negative impacts of subsidies on world trade, the WTO has a well-defined political framework for resolving issues between countries and negotiating trade rules for the trading member states. This organization also has an Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, which aims to restrict the use of subsidies by individual coun tries (Ryan, 2006). The WTO has set up rules that prohibit member countries from aggressive subsidization that might hurt other nations. Measures have been taken to address the issue of trade distorting caused by rampant subsidization. WTO member states have been provided with a forum for presenting cases against nations that are considered to be engaging in aggressive subsidization. Using the Discussion and Conclusion Government policy makers and economists agree that international trade is crucial for the economic development of a country and it is one of the ways through which poverty can be eradicated especially in developing nations. However, for this to occur international trade has to be fair and beneficial to all the parties engaged in trading. Most subsidies lead to unfair trade and reduce the economic advantages that world trade might offer to a country. For example, excessive agricultural subsidies by developed nations have led to a reduction of national and global econom ic welfare and led to trade restriction. This paper set out to highlight the politics of subsidies and world trade with special focus on the impacts of subsidization. The discussions provided in this paper highlight that subsidies have beneficial and damaging impacts on the individual countrys economy and world trade. The paper has noted that subsidies are necessary to promote industrial growth, encourage new technologies, and protect local industries from volatile markets. However, aggressive subsidizing leads to trade distorting in the international trade arena therefore depriving third world countries of export currency in agriculture. From the arguments provided in this paper, it is clear that subsidies cannot be dismissed since they are a tool that countries can take to protect their own economic interests and the wellbeing of their citizens. However, steps should be taken to deal with subsidies that lead to negative trade outcomes in order for all nations to benefit mutually f rom world trade. References Anderson, K. (2010). Can the WTO reduce agricultural trade distortions? The Journal of International Trade Economic Development, 19(1), 109–134. Goodman, R. (2010). A five-Point Defense of Farm Subsidies. Retrieved from: http://alfafarmers.org/programs/ Kim, K.H. (2007). The Impact of Subsidies on Global Markets. Proceedings of the Northeast Business Economics Association, 12(1), 28-31. Rivoli, P. (2009). The Travels of a T-Shirt in the Global Economy: An Economist Examines the Markets, Power, and Politics of World Trade. NY: John Wiley Sons Ryan, L. (2006). Dogfight: Criticizing the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures Amidst the Largest Dispute in World Trade Organization History. North Carolina Journal of International Law Commercial Regulation, 32(1), p115-157 Shumaker, M.J. (2007). Tearing the Fabric of the World Trade Organization: United States Subsidies on Upland Cotton. North Carolina Journal of International Law Commer cial Regulation, 32(3), 547-603.

Limiting Financial Executives' Compensation Term Paper

Limiting Financial Executives' Compensation - Term Paper Example While the financial innovations helped the stock markets grow at a whopping pace in the 1990s and early 2000s, they also brought about a false euphoria and when the bubble burst, the current slowdown was imminent. The 1980s heralded many changes in the banking and securities exchange sectors the world over. It was an era of deregulations and free flow of currency.Due to changes in policies related to the stock market like bond trading, invention of securitization, interest-rate swaps, and credit-default swaps, bankers could increasingly make huge profits in the stock markets in the past two -three decades. Financial services also benefitted from higher investments made in securities by the increasingly wealthy population, encouraged by the IRA and 401 (k) plan. With everyone making money, there seemed to be clout surrounding the financial experts, and the growth of private banks was considered synonymous with economic growth. According to Simon Johnson, "the great wealth that the financial sector created and concentrated gave bankers enormous political weight-a weight not seen in the U.S. since the era of J.P. Morgan (the man)." In the same article, the chart showing the percentage of financial industry's profits as a share of U.S business profits indicates a slow increase fr

Patholophysiology & Management of critical conditions Essay

Patholophysiology & Management of critical conditions - Essay Example pes of stroke that human beings can be affected by; Ischemic stroke is a kind of brain attack that arises when a vessel which transports blood to human brain is blocked by the blood clotting process (Richard, et al, 2009). In this case, the clot creates a barricade, blocking the routine flow of blood. This occurs in two main ways; first there can be a blood clot happening in a brain artery which happens to be very narrow, this process is referred to as â€Å"Thrombotic stroke.† Secondly, there may be a case where a clot breaks off from a completely different location. Alternatively, the blood clot can be transported to the blood vessels in the brain from a different part of the body, in both cases; the clot is a barrier blood flow in the brain. In the condition, the kind of stroke suffered from is referred to as â€Å"embolism† or â€Å"embolic stroke† Another kind of stroke happens when a weak blood vessel happens to burst up in the brain. This makes the blood to start leaking into the brain against the normal way that the brain is intended to function (Kenning, et al, 2012). In both cases, death is always knocking for the victim in case urgent effective medical care is not administered. When a person is affected by stroke, the kind of symptoms that are exhibited depends on the part of the brain that has been affected. It is possible for someone to experience the symptoms without being able to know that its stroke. People should be aware that symptoms of stroke develop unexpectedly and without due warning. For the first few days the symptoms occur on and off, making it hard for one to explain the prevailing body condition. When stroke first occurs, its symptoms are said to be very severe, however, this effects gets worse as time continues. If bleeding happens in the brain, the victim experiences headaches which start as mild but soon become severe. These headaches are prevalent when the victim is lying flat; the severity of the headaches wakes up the victim from

Equity and Trust Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Equity and Trust - Essay Example In Tinsley v Milligan, the plaintiff Tinsley sought ownership of a jointly owned property2. Tinsley was the legal owner of the property. She had been living with the defendant Milligan, and these two females had contributed monetarily to the acquisition of that property3. Milligan’s contention was that Tinsley was a trustee for both of them. As such, these women had committed a fraud on the Department of Social Security. They had purchased the property, but had retained title to the property in only the name of Tinsley. This stratagem enabled Milligan to claim benefits from the Department of Social Security, as a person without any property to her name4. In this case, the plaintiff contended that ‘he who comes to equity must come with clean hands.’ Consequently, as per her contention, Milligan was precluded from claiming an equitable interest in the property. The House of Lords ruled that as Milligan did not rely on her illegality, she could enforce such interest. Moreover, it was Tinsley who would have to rely on the evidence provided by the illegal purpose5. It was held by the House of Lords that Milligan could claim her equitable beneficial interests in the property. The Law Lords opined that a plaintiff could claim proprietary interests, as long as she did not rely on an illegality to establish the interest6. Thus, equitable interest of this type was to be considered as similar to the immediate rights to possession under the common law. As such, in this case, two women, paid for a property, but placed the property in the name of one of them. This was done in order to claim housing benefits. However, the courts did not allow this fraudulent behaviour to affect the proprietary rights of the woman, whose name had not been indicated as the half owner of the property. All the same, if the plaintiff had attempted to assert her personal right to entitlement, on the basis of unjust enrichment, she could not have succeeded in her claim.

Properties of Cytosinium Hydrogen Selenite

Properties of Cytosinium Hydrogen Selenite Growth, Optical, Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Cytosinium hydrogen selenite: A Novel Nonlinear Optical Single Crystal P. Jaikumar, S. Sathiskumar, T. Balakrishnan  and K. Ramamurthi Abstract A novel nonlinear optical single crystal of cytosinium hydrogen selenite was successfully grown from aqueous solution by slow evaporation method at room temperature. The unit cell parameters of the grown crystal were estimated by single crystal X- ray diffraction analysis. The grown crystals were characterized by powder X- ray technique. Presence of various functional groups was identified from Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The optical transmittance and absorbance spectra recorded for the grown crystal show that the crystal possesses good transparency in the entire visible region. The dielectric constant and dielectric loss were calculated for the grown crystal as a function of frequency at different temperatures. Etching study of the grown cytosinium hydrogen selenite crystal was carried out with different etching time. Keywords: Crystal growth; Optical properties; Mechanical properties; Dielectric constant, second harmonic generation efficiency *Corresponding author Tel.: +91 9443445535 E Mail addresses: [emailprotected] (T. Balakrishnan). 1.Introduction In the past few decades, a myriad of efforts has been made in the design and characterization of nonlinear optical (NLO) materials due to their excellent properties and important applications in the field of laser technology, telecommunication, optoelectronic and photonic applications [1-2]. A large number of various organic and semiorganic NLO materials were synthesized and characterized. Cytosine is one of the pyrimidine derivatives consists of heterocyclic compound along with aromatic amine and keto groups [3-4]. Cytosine plays an important role in DNA/RNA base pairing, through several hydrogen-bonding pattern, and controls the essential features of life as it is involved in genetic codon of 17 amino acids [5]. The single crystal structure of anhydrous cytosine [6] and cytosine monohydrate [7] was reported. Tu Lee and and Pu Yun Wang [8] reported the molecular recognition of an achiral cytosine with oxalic acid, malonic acid and succinic acid. Babulal Das and Baruah [9] reported t he hydrogen bonded single crystals of cytosine with adipic acid and citric acid. Reji Thomas and Kulkarni [10] studied the hydrogen bonding in proton transfer complexes of cytosine with trimesic acid and pyromellitic acid. Single crystal structure of metal complexes of cytosine with cobalt chloride [11], copper chloride [12] and calcium chloride [13] were reported. The single crystal structure of cytosinium hydrogen selenite (CHS) was reported by Radhwane Takouachet et al. [14]. A survey of literature shows no systematic works available on the growth of cytosinium hydrogen selenite single crystal and its characterization. Hence in this work we report on the synthesis and growth of CHS single crystal and characterization of the grown crystal for its structural, optical, nonlinear optical, dielectric, thermal and etching properties for the first time. 2. Experimental details 2.1 Synthesis Aqua solution of CHS was prepared from equimolar amounts of AR grade cytosine and selenous acid (E Merck). The reactants were thoroughly dissolved in doubly distilled water and stirred well for about three hours using temperature controlled magnetic stirrer to obtain a homogeneous mixture of solution. Evaporation of the prepared solution at room temperature yielded the product of CHS. Successive re-crystallization process was adapted to improve the purity of the synthesized CHS. 2.2 Crystal Growth Saturated solution of CHS was prepared at room temperature using recrystallized salt in double distilled water and filtered using Whatman filter paper. The filtered solution was taken in a fresh beaker closed with perforated polythene sheet and kept in a dust free atmosphere for crystallization. Slow evaporation method yielded single crystals of size 4 Ãâ€" 2 Ãâ€" 2 mm3 and were harvested in a period of 15 days. The grown CHS crystals are shown in Fig.1. Fig.1. As grown CHS crystals 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 X-ray diffraction studies The grown single crystal was subjected to single crystal X-ray diffraction analysis at room temperature using Enraf Nonius CAD4 X – ray diffractometer with Mo KÃŽ ± (ÃŽ » = 0.7107Ã…) radiation to estimate the unit cell parameters. Single crystal structure studies show that CHS crystal belongs to orthorhombic system with a non centrosymmetric space group PCa21. The unit cell parameters obtained are a = 7.024 Ã… (7.005 Ã…), b = 8.661 Ã… (8.634 Ã…), c = 12.741 Ã… (12.713 Ã…) and V= 771 Ã…3 (768 Ã… 3 ) and these values agree well with the corresponding values reported by Radhwane Takouachet et al. [14] given in parenthesis. Powder X-ray diffraction pattern of the CHS crystal was recorded on Reich Seifert diffractometer using Cu KÃŽ ± (ÃŽ » = 1.5418 Ã…) radiation. The powdered sample was scanned over a 2ÃŽ ¸ range 10 ° 80 ° at a scan rate of 1 °/min. The recorded powder X ray diffraction peaks were indexed using AUTOX 93 software. The indexed powder X ray diffraction peaks of CHS are shown in Fig.2. Fig.2. Powder X-ray diffraction pattern of CHS 3.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectral analysis. The Fourier Transform Infrared spectral analysis of CHS crystal was carried out in the range of 400 – 4000 cm-1 using Perkin Elmer FT – IR spectrometer by the KBr pellet method to study the presence of various functional groups. The recorded FT-IR spectrum is shown in Fig. 3. In the higher energy region, the peak appears at 3316 cm-1 is assigned to NH2 asymmetric stretching vibration. The peak at 3218 cm-1 is assigned to the frequency of NH2 symmetric stretching vibration. The intense peak at 1727 cm-1 establishes the presence of C = O stretching vibration. The NH2 in plane deformation vibration mode appears at 1644 cm-1. The C – N – H and C = C stretching vibrations are observed at 1497 cm-1 and 1368 cm-1 respectively. The peak at 1237 cm-1 occurs due to C – N stretching vibration. The strong band observed at 821 cm-1, 631 cm-1 and 428 cm-1 are due to the Se O stretching vibration [15]. The observed wave numbers and the assignments are presented in Table 1. Fig.3. FT – IR spectrum of CHS Table 1. Tentative band assignment of FT IR spectra for CSA single crystals 3.3. UV Vis NIR Spectral analysis The UV – Vis – NIR spectrum gives information about the changes in electronic structure of the molecule because the absorption of UV and visible light involves promotion of the electrons from the ground state to higher energy states. The UV – Vis – NIR transmittance and absorbance spectrum was recorded in the wavelength range of 190 – 1100 nm using Varian Cary 5E spectrophotometer. The UV transmittance and absorbance spectrum recorded for CHS of thickness 2mm is shown in Fig. 4. As there is no absorption in the entire UV – Vis – NIR, it can be used as potential material for frequency doubling process. The lower cutoff wavelength is observed at 290 nm. From the transmittance spectra optical parameters like absorption coefficient ÃŽ ± and band gap were evaluated. The absorption coefficient (ÃŽ ±) was evaluated from the equation ÃŽ ± = 2.303 A/t, where t is the thickness and A is the absorbance of the crystal. The direct band gap was dete rmined by fitting the absorption data to the equation ÃŽ ±hÑ µ = B (ÃŽ ±hÑ µ hÑ µ)1/2 in which hÑ µ is the photon energy and B is the constant related to material. A plot of variation of hÏ… versus (ÃŽ ±hÏ…)2 was drawn in Fig. 5 and the optical band gap (Eg) was obtained by extrapolating the linear part of the graph to X – axis. This gives a band gap value of 5.1 eV for CHS crystal. Fig.4. UV – Vis – NIR transmittance and absorbance spectrum of CHS single crystal Fig.5. Plot of (ÃŽ ±hÃŽ ½)2 versus hÃŽ ½ for CHS single crystal 3.4. Dielectric studies The dielectric constant of a material gives information about the nature of atoms, ions and their bonding in the material. The dielectric constant and dielectric loss of the CHS crystals were studied at three different temperatures using a HIOKI 3532 LCR HITESTER instrument in the frequency range 50 Hz 2 MHz. Cut and polished crystal of dimension 1cm x 1cm x 2mm was used for dielectric study. A two terminal copper electrode was used as a sample holder and the sample was held between the electrodes. The temperature of the sample was controlled and measured using a thermocouple. The thermocouple was fixed in the vicinity of lower electrode to measure the temperature of the sample. In this way a parallel plate capacitor was formed. The capacitance of the sample was measured by varying the frequency. The dielectric constant (ɆºÃƒÅ Ã‚ ¹) in the frequency range 50 Hz 2 MHz was estimated at the temperature 32, 50 and 75  °C using the formula ɆºÃƒÅ Ã‚ ¹ = Cd/(Éâ⠂¬ º0A), where C is the capacitance of the crystal, d is the thickness of the crystal, A is the cross sectional area of the crystal and Ɇº0 is the constant of permittivity of free space. The variation of the dielectric constant with log frequency at different temperature is shown in Fig. 6. It is found that dielectric constant has high values in the lower frequency region and then it decreases with increase in frequency. The dielectric constant of a material is composed of four contributions namely electronic, ionic, orientation and space charge polarizations. The high value of dielectric constant at low frequencies may be due to the presence of all the four polarizations and its low value at high frequencies may be due to the loss of significance of these polarizations gradually [16, 17]. It was observed from the graph that the dielectric constant of CHS exhibits a normal dielectric behaviour. Fig. 7 shows the exponential decrease of dielectric loss of CHS as a function o f frequency. Fig.6. Variation of dielectric constant with log frequency at various temperatures Fig . 7. Variation of dielectric loss with log frequency at various temperatures 3.5Microhardness study Microhardness measurement is a general microprose technique for assessing the bond strength, apart from being a measure of bulk strength. The hardness value correlated with other mechanical properties like elastic constants, yield strength, brittleness index and temperature of cracking. Microhardness measurements were carried at room temperature using Shimadzu HMV-2000 hardness tester fitted with a Vickers pyramid diamond. The load P is varied between 25g to 100g, and the indentation time is kept constant at 10s for all trails. The diagonal lengths of indentation were measured. The hardness of the material Hv is determined by the following relation. Hv = 1.8544 P /d2 (Kg/mm2) Fig.8 Microhardness values vs. load for CHS crystal Where P is the applied load in Kg and d is the diagonal length of the impression in mm. The variation of hardness value and applied load is shown in Fig.8. The graph was plotted for log P versus log d is shown in Fig.9. The plot of log P versus log d yields a straight line and its slope gives the work hardening coefficient n. The value of n is found to be 5 for CHS crystal. Since the value of n is greater than 2, the hardness of the material is found increase with the increase of load. It confirms the prediction of Onitsch and also the reverse indentation size effect (RISE) [18 19]. Fig.9. log P vs. log d for CHS crystal 3.5. Thermal analysis The thermo gravimetric ( TG ), differential thermal ( DT ) and differential scanning calorimetric (DSC) analysis were carried out using SDT Q600 v20.9 Build 20 for CHS sample weight of 7.9970 mg in the temperature range 25 to 500  °C at a heating rate of 10 ° C / min in nitrogen gas atmosphere. A small weight loss of 17.2 % observed in the range of 25 ° C 150 ° C, which is assigned to the loss of selenous acid. There is a major weight loss of 69.5 % in the temperature range 150 ° C 460 ° C. The second step of weight loss is attributed to the decomposition of cytosine molecules. The DTA trace illustrates two endothermic peak each at, 66.55 ° C and 167.47 ° C. The endotherms coincide with the weight losses shown in Fig.10 Fig. 10 TG/DTA and DSC trace of CHS single crystal 3.7. Etching studies The chemical etching studies were carried out on the grown CHS crystal using polarized high resolution optical microscope fitted with Motic camera. Etching is an important tool for the identification of the crystal defects, such as growth hillocks, etch pits, grain boundaries on the crystal surface and micro structural imperfections of the grown crystal. Double distilled water was used as etchant. The photographs of the etch patterns are shown in Fig. 11a and Fig. 11b. When the etch time is 5s, which is shows less etch pits formed in the grown crystal surface. Etching study is made on the grown CHS single crystal with different etching time and when the etching time is increased, there is a major change observed in the morphology of the etch pits (with 10s). Fig. 9a. Etching study on CHS crystal (etch time of 5s) Fig. 9b Etching study on CHS crystal (etch time of 10s) 3.8. Second harmonic generation efficiency The second harmonic generation (SHG) efficiency of the grown crystal was measured by using the Kurtz powder technique [20]. The fundamental beam of 1064 nm from Q-switched Nd:YAG laser ( Prolab 170 Quanta ray, pulse width 8 ns, repetition rate 10 Hz) was made to fall normally on the CHS crystalline powder densely packed in a capillary tube. The fundamental beam was filtered using an IR filter and the green radiation of 532 nm was collected by Photo multiplier tube (PMT-Philips photonics – model 8563). The optical signal incident on the PMT was converted into voltage output at the CRO (Tektronix – TDS 3052B). The input laser energy incident on the powdered sample was chosen to be 6.1mJ/pulse. A pure potassium dihydrogen Phosphate powdered sample of the same size of CHS (KDP) was used as the reference material and the result obtained for CHS shows a second harmonic generation efficiency of about 1.5 times that of KDP. 4. Conclusion Slow evaporation technique at room temperature yielded CHS single crystals of 4 Ãâ€" 2 Ãâ€" 2 mm3 . The single crystal X – ray diffraction analysis reveals that the crystal belongs to orthorhombic system with a non centrosymmetric space group of PCa21. The crystallinity of the grown crystal was verified by powder X – ray diffraction analysis. Presence of various functional groups of CHS crystals was identified by FT – IR spectral studies. From the UV – Vis – NIR transmittance spectrum we found that the material has no absorption in the range of 210 1100 nm, thus confirming the suitability of CHS crystal for SHG application. The dielectric study reveals that the dielectric constant and dielectric loss decreases with increasing frequency at different temperatures. TG/DTA reveals that the compound is stable at room temperature and decomposes on increasing the temperature. Etching study is made on the surface of the grown crystal with different etchi ng time and when the etching time is increased, there is no change in the morphology of the etch pits. The second harmonic generation efficiency of the crystal was measured by Kurtz powder technique and is 1.5 times that of KDP. References [1]. Hideko Koshima, Hironori I Miyamoto, I chizo Yagi, Kohei U osaki, Cryst. Growth and Design 4 (2004) 807 – 811. [2]. K. Bouchouit, Z., B. Derkowska, S. Abed, N. Bnali-Cherif, M. Bakasse, B. Sahraoui, J. Optics Communications, 278 (2007) 180-186. [3]. J. D. Watson, F.H. Crick, Nature, 171(1953) 737-738. [4]. Balasubramanian Sridhar, Jagadeesh Babu Nanubolu, Krishnan Ravikumar Cryst. Eng. Comm., 14 (2012) 7065-7074. [5]. G. Portalone, M. Colapietro, J. Chem. Crystallogr. 39 (2009) 193-200. [6]. David L. Barker, Richard E. Marsh, Acta Cryst. 17, (1964) 1581-1587. [7]. G.A.Jeffery, Y.Kinoshita, Y. Acta. Cryst. 16, (1963) 20-38. [8]. Tu Lee, Pu Yun Wang, Cryst. Growth Des. 10 (2010) 1419 1434. [9]. Babulal Das, Jubaraj B. Baruah, J. Molecular Structure 1001, (2011) 134-138. [10]. Reji Thomas, G. U. Kulkarni J. Molecular Structure 873 (2008) 160 167. [11]. D. Trani Qui, M. Bagieu A. Acta. Cryst C46 (1990) 1645-1647. [12]. D. Trani Qui, E. Palacios Acta. Cryst C46 (1990) 1220-1223. [13]. Keizo ogawa, Miyoko Kumihashi, Ken-ichi tomita, Acta. Cryst B36 (1980) 1793-1797. [14]. Radhwane Takouachet, Rim Benali Cherif, Nourredine Benali Cherif, Acta Cryst. E70 (2014) o186 – o187. [15]. K. Nakamoto, Infrared and Raman spectra of Inorganic and Coordination compounds,  Wiley, New York, 1978 [16]. T. Balakrishnan, G. Bhagavanarayanan and K. Ramamurthi, Spectrochim. Acta part A 71 (2008) 578 – 583. [17]. K. V. Rao and A. Smakula, J. App. Phys. 37 (1996) 317 – 322. [18]. K. Sangwal, Mater. Chem. Phys. 63 (2000) 145 152. [19]. Mott. B. W. Micro indentation Hardness Testing: Butterworths, London, 1956. [20]. S. K. Kurtz and T. T. Perry, J. Appl. Phys. 39 (1968) 3798.

Themes in To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee :: To Kill a Mockingbird Essays

Some books are written to prove a point or some sort of idea. The novel, To Kill A Mockingbird by Harper Lee, is an excellent example of proving a point or a theme. Themes in the book include courage, lady, standing in another man's shoes, it's not time to worry, education, and trash. All the themes stand out, however, three in particular are exemplified in the book. The three main themes in To Kill a Mockingbird are courage, lady, and standing in another man's shoes. The first theme is courage. Courage is apparent in the seemingly wicked Mrs. Dubose. It is also courage for Jem to strive against Mrs Dubose. According to Atticus, the children's father courage is, "...when you know you're licked before you begin but you begin anyway and you see it through no matter what."(p112) Mrs. Dubose had great courage trying to get over her morphine addiction and, even though she would have trouble doing it, bumped the addiction for the rest of her life. In the beginning of the book, when Dill, Scout, and Jem were still hyped up over Boo Radley Jem showed the ultimate courage by venturing into the spooky dwelling place inhabited by Boo Radley. Jem went through the gate and touched the house. One time, all three went into the Radley yard to simply look inside Boo's window. However, the children were frightened near death by a warning shot from Nathan Radley. The real courage comes after that when Jem goes to reclaim his pants, facing a possible confrontation with Boo or Nathan. Another example of courage is Atticus defending Tom Robinson, a black man who is innocent of rape but is tried because Bob Ewell said Tom did it. Atticus knew he would be defeated but he tried to win the case anyway. Also, though the book doesn't really mention the way Scout is not happy in school, it requires great courage for Scout to continue to go to school even though she has to deal with a bad first grade teacher. Lee's point in courage is a person is not defeated until the person loses faith and gives up. The second theme in the book is lady. One of the people of this theme is Scout's Aunt Alexandra, who is constantly scolding Atticus for allowing Scout to do unladylike things. Miss Maudie, the town's resident botanist, is a lady who Scout's uncle is always after. Once when Scout is being asked what she thinks her occupation would be, she answers, "Just a lady."(p230) Being a lady also has to deal with the types of clothes worn by the lady.

A review: les misérables

It has been three years since I saw Les Misà ©rables. It was an experience that I won’t likely forget too soon for, not only was it an incredible musical performance, it was also the first Broadway production I had ever seen.And a big production it was, too. Les Miserables has a mosaic of characters – police, prostitutes and pragmatic students – woven onto an automatically dramatic backdrop of tragic revolution in France where there is glory in death for a cause.It is unfortunate, however, that I do not remember all the main cast members. I do, however, have three of them, whose performances I really loved, still in mind—Jean Valjean, Javert, and my favorite, Ma-Anne Dionisio as Eponine. Her real name stuck to my memory just as her performance did. Though I was a little surprised at the casting of an Asian for Eponine’s role, I realized that her ethnicity wasn’t important—her voice was. She was a truly amazing singer.This was the firs t time that Les Miz came to the Fisher Theater, and though regrettably seated at the $50 seats (way up in the balcony even for that price), it was worth it. Les Miz is one of those shows that doesn’t need to be reinvented to be successful. It has been running so long that people knew what to expect, even me.I had heard of this musical many times before I actually got to see it, but just seeing the1800s costuming, the spinning sets, the shadowy lighting, were confirmation that all the accolades this show had gathered through the years were well-deserved. It was a production that spared no expense, and took no prisoners.To give a short summary of the play from Online-Literature, Les Misà ©rables is set in the Parisian underworld. The protagonist, Jean Valjean, was sentenced to prison for 19 years for stealing a loaf of bread.After his release, Valjean planned to rob monseigneur Myriel, a saint-like bishop, but cancelled his plan. However, he forfeited his parole by committing a minor crime, and for this crime Valjean was haunted by the police inspector Javert. Valjean eventually reformed and went under the name of M. Madeleine—a successful businessman, benefactor and mayor of a northern town.But to save an innocent man, Valjean gave himself up and was imprisoned in Toulon. In the end, Valjean had to reveal his past. It was definitely a sad story; made sadder by the songs sung in lament through most of the musical. The performances were, to my untrained ears, absolutely amazing. I’m sure there were critics who noticed so and so’s voice not being up to par, but to me, they all played their roles to perfection. The actor/singer who played Jean Valjean carried a huge part of the play’s success.He was the main character. His first appearance on stage sent chills through me because here was the famous Valjean, finally. His song that lamented the yellow ticket (proclaimed his former-convict status) he had to carry around with him was moving.You felt his sadness and pain. Javert, on the other hand, conveyed his feelings of justice and self-righteousness to the audience with no problem. His posture told the whole story: He stood stiff and upright, never slouching, never flinching. His voice was superb as well. But, really, it was Eponine’s song â€Å"On My Own† that just pulled me in. What a glorious rendition it was! Here was a woman in love.The fact that it was unrequited love made you all the more sympathize to her plight and make you want to shake the guy whose love she craved. How could he not love her?What made these performances so much more effective were the gestures and costumes that they employed. Sure, costumes play a somewhat unimportant role in any production, but in this case, the audience is looking for authenticity, for a vision to lose himself or herself in because the viewer wants to imagine how it is to be in 19th century France.I thought that the costume design was exemplary. Of course, the moving sets do not let you completely slide out into another world, but the appropriate raggedness of some of the characters’ costumes were all too real. One even feels like the nearer one gets to the stage, the greater chance it would be to get a noxious whiff of Paris’s poor folk. The gestures were evocative. I remember thinking how it must be to act and sing at the same time.

Globalization and Social Inequality The WritePass Journal

Globalization and Social Inequality Introduction Globalization and Social Inequality IntroductionReferencesRelated Introduction Social inequality is an issue that is much debated today within the social sciences, as well as other disciplines. Although very few would deny that social inequality exists and has always existed in human societies, it is not always clear through what mechanisms it manifests itself, along what lines it progresses, and how we can make life better for those affected by global inequalities. The question remains whether or not the world that we live in today is more equal than what people have experienced in the past. Although some might argue that Western development brings with it more equal rights, it is doubtful that this is actually the case. In recent years, we have witnessed a phenomenon called globalization which is, in short, a â€Å"widening and deepening of the international flows of trade, capital, technology and information within a single integrated global market (Petras and Veltmeyer 2001, p11).† Globalization has brought with it significant changes in the way peop le and nations relate to one another. In many cases, it has created new patterns of inequality, as well as reinforced old ones. The purpose of this paper is to investigate some of the effects of globalization and critically analyse them. I will argue that currently we do not live in a more equal world and neither are we moving towards greater equality. Rather, I argue that, through globalization, inequalities are exacerbated due to capitalism and the unequal flow of markets. This paper will look at how inequalities have evolved over the last two hundred years, why they have occurred, and how the pattern of inequality looks like today. Kaplinsky (2005, p 28) and Jolly (2005) note that as early as 1776, economists such as Adam Smith became preoccupied with the issue of poverty and its consequences on inequality. During the 18th and the 19th century in England it was well-known that for every handful of rich aristocrats there were hundreds or even thousands of poor people. With the advance of industrialization, poverty only deepened (Jolly 2005). Karl Marx illustrated the problem perfectly by outlining the issue of the bourgeoisie owning the means of production, while workers sell their labour for minimal wages. Petras and Veltmeyer (2001, p 128) also stress that historically, a minority ruling class have used coercion and social institutions to control exploited people. Until the present day, this situation has not changed very much. Moreover, during the past decades, the disparities between the global North and South have become more and more evident, partly due to globalization. The movement of capital and trading agreements have mostly benefitted the developed countries, while the developing ones are forced to create economies that cater to the needs of the West. As Birdsall (2005, p 2) notes, â€Å"global markets are inherently disequalizing, making rising inequality in developing countries more rather than less likely.† This shows that we are not moving towards a more equal world. Moreover, even wealthy countries, such as the U.S. experience growing poverty rates within their own borders (Dillon 2010). Dillon (2010, p 60) stresses that â€Å"economic inequality has in fact grown since the late 1980s, as has the gap between the highest and the lowest income groups,† while Butler and Watt (2007, p 112) even call poverty rates in the U.S. â€Å"extreme.†Ã‚   It is evident from these accounts that unfortunately, unless measures will be taken, inequality will increase and dreams of an equal world are moving farther away. The reality is that we live in an unequal world. There is an abundance of social issues that are caused by widespread inequality. Discrimination today manifests itself through the lines of class, gender, race, age, nationality, and other factors. Due to length limitations, this paper mostly focuses on economic inequalities. These are especially poignant when we look at the way people live in underdeveloped countries. This is a direct consequence of colonialism and the quest of the Western world to expand and develop their economic system. However, the expansion of the markets rewards only those who have more assets, such as financial and human capital (Birdsall 2005, p 3). Also, poor nations cannot attract investment and diversification, without a stable middle class and economic institutions. Consequently, the price of their exports declines and they fail to grow (Birdsall 2005, p 3). This is just an example of how globalization reinforces inequality. If markets are let to operate f reely, as they do today, the world will become more unequal. Underdeveloped countries have not become more equal since interaction with the West has intensified. Beer and Boswell (2002, p 31) also stress that â€Å"disproportionate control over host economies by transnational corporations increases inequality by altering the development patterns of these nations.† Although some might think that international corporations can improve a developing country’s economy, this is not necessarily true. It is evident then, that the path that is nowadays advocated by many here in the Western world, does not serve the purpose of a more equal world. On the contrary, it exacerbates global inequalities. The causes of growing inequality in today’s world are diverse and often not very easy to identify. However, the main cause might be the capitalist system that has spread internationally, oftentimes to the benefit of few and the exploitation of many. Trade between rich and poor nations creates patterns of dependency and unequal exchanges, leading to high income inequalities between the two (Beer and Boswell 2002, p 33). Despite the current emphasis on trade agreements and flows of trade that increasingly deepen, time and time again it has been stressed that this process creates inequalities and is detrimental to developing countries. In addition, the markets often fail. Some notable examples are the financial crises in Mexico, Thailand, Korea, Russian, Brazil and Argentina that took place in the 1990s (Birdsall 2005). Also, when a recession hits, the lower classes are the most affected. In turn, this leads to even greater inequalities between the rich and the poor. There are many mechanisms through which capital and the markets contribute to a less equal world in our present time. Investment often causes disparities between foreign and domestic sectors. Also, international corporations usually do not reinvest profits in the local economies. Governments in developing countries adopt policies that prevent the lower classes from moving upwards, while at the same time they encourage the formation of a â€Å"managerial elite (Beer and Boswell 2002, p 33).† For those concerned about equality, it is alarming that neither foreign investors nor local governments fully understand the consequences of their actions. If this kind of policies will keep being implemented, levels of inequality will certainly increase. As Petras and Veltmeyer   (2001) note, the politics of the Western Right are also at fault for the direction towards which we are heading. They say that the Right engages in â€Å"class warfare† through privatization and the conce ntration of power in the hands of few (Petras and Veltmeyer 2001, p 148). Thus, social institutions, as well as economic policies serve the interests of wealthy corporations. The focus of present neoliberal politics is not to decrease income disparities, but to increase the wealth of the few. Staying on the same course guarantees that the world will become less and less equal. I have argued that we do not live and a more equal world. On the contrary, the globalization of markets has had a negative impact on the livelihoods of many. The effects of capitalism had started being seen a long time ago. Income disparities always existed between those who own the means of production (the bourgeoisie) and the workers that work in their factories. The income gap between the lower class and the upper class increased steadily with time. In addition, global exploration and colonization has led to even greater disparities between the West and the colonies. Under the current system, developing countries find it almost impossible to reach the same level of wealth and stability as Western countries. However, even developed countries have growing poverty rates within their own borders. These rates have been increasing over the past years, while the gap between the rich and the poor is widening. The world is becoming a less equal place. The free flow of markets and an unregu lated capitalist system are mainly to blame for income inequalities. Poor nations have become dependent on rich nations and economic crises affect lower classes the most. With both corporations and national governments driven by profit, no one looks at the long-term effects that trade has on inequality. Moreover, the rise of neoliberal politics in the West encourages the maintenance of the same pattern of increased inequality and dependency. Despite the optimism of some, the truth is that globalization, as it is occurring today, is only increasing disparities between classes, between nations, and between the global North and South.   The evidence shows that the world is at least as unequal as it was two hundred years ago. Current economic policies will only serve to make it less and less equal. If drastic measures are not taken soon, there is little hope that our world will become a more equitable place. References Butler, T. and Watt, P. 2007. Understanding Social Inequality. London: Sage. Beer, L. and Boswell, T. 2002. The resilience of dependency effects in explaining income inequality in the global economy: a cross national analysis, 1975-1995. Journal of World Systems Research, 8(1), pp.30-61. Birdsall, N. 2006. Rising inequality in the new global economy. International Journal of Development Issues, 5(1), pp.1-9. Dillon, M. 2010. Introduction to Sociological Theory: Theorists, concepts and their applicability to the twenty-first century. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Jolly, R. 2005. Global inequality in historical perspective. WIDER (World Institute for Development Economic Research) Angle, 2. Kaplinski, R. 2005. Globalization, Poverty and Inequality: Between a Rock and a Hard Place. Cambridge: Polity.

To What Extent Does Market Liberalisation Influence Competition In Gas And Electricity Sector The WritePass Journal

To What Extent Does Market Liberalisation Influence Competition In Gas And Electricity Sector ABSTRACT To What Extent Does Market Liberalisation Influence Competition In Gas And Electricity Sector . The Official History of Privatisation, Vol. 2.   London, UK: Routledge Smith, M. P.   2012. States of Liberalization: Redefining the Public Sector in Integrated Europe. New York, NY: SUNY Press Surrey, J. 2013. The British Electricity Experiment: Privatization: the Record, the Issues, the Lessons.   London, UK: Routledge Articles Joskow, P. Tirole, J. 2000. Transmission rights and market power in electric power networks. Rand Journal of Economics, 31(3), 450-487 Newbery, D. 2005. Electricity Liberalisation in Britain. The Energy Journal, special issue on European Electricity Liberalisation. Wolak, F. Patrick, R. 2001. The Impact of Market Rules and Market Structure on the Price Determination Process in the England and Wales Electricity Market. NBER Working Paper 8248

What can we learn from the product management of Microsoft Vista, and Essay

What can we learn from the product management of Microsoft Vista, and how to apply the lessons learned in managing digital products in general - Essay Example Product management is an organizational function within a company dealing with the planning or marketing of a product or products at all stages of the product lifecycle. Product management is also a collective term used to describe the broad sum of diverse activities performed in the interest of delivering a particular product to market" (Wikipedia, 2008). The purpose of this paper is to deter what we can learn from the product management of Microsoft Vista, as well as how to apply the lessons learned in managing digital products in general.The features of Windows Vista differ according to the edition: Ultimate, Home Premium, Home Basic, Business, or Enterprise. According to Microsoft, "Ultimate provides the power, security, and mobility features needed for work, and all the entertainment features that you want for fun" (2008). They claim that Home Premium, "provides a breakthrough design that brings your world into sharper focus while delivering the productivity, entertainment, and security you need from your PC at home or on the go" (2008). Their description of Home Basic is that "Easy to set up and maintain, it enables you to quickly find what you're looking for on your PC and the Internet, while providing a more secure environment to help protect you from an unpredictable world" (2008). They argue that with their Business version, users will "spend less time on technology support-related issues-so you can spend more time making your business successful" (2008). Finally, they claim that Enterprise was "Designed to significantly lower IT costs and risks, Windows Vista Enterprise meets the needs of large, global organizations with complex IT infrastructures" (2008). Physical products have several advantages over digital products, but there are also some disadvantages. First of all, pictures or actual representations or examples of physical products can be shown. Second, many shoppers know that they often get a real bargain when they shop for physical items online versus in a store, and the convenience of being able to shop from anywhere is second to none. Finally, physical products that are online appeal to a much larger and diverse pool of shoppers than those that are in stores in any given city. The downsides of physical products include that they are often expensive to ship, some physical products are perishable, and the inventory must be stored somewhere which is often a significant additional expense to the seller (Collins, 2007). Digital products have their advantages and disadvantages as well. First of all, there is no storage space needed other than for electronic storage. There is no need to worry about shipping, as customers can download the products. The downsides of digital products include vulnerability to computer problems, equipment maintenance costs, and the need for Internet with higher bandwidth (Collins, 2007). According to Wikipedia, "In business and engineering, new product development (NPD) is the term used to describe the complete process of bringing a new product or service to market. There are two parallel paths involved in the NPD process: one involves the idea generation, product design, and detail engineering; the other involves market research and marketing analysis. Companies typically see new product development as the first stage in generating and commercializing new products within the overall strategic process of product life cycle management used to maintain or grow their market share" (2008). This concept applies to digital products just as much as it does physical products. The following is a model of the new product development process. It shows the process starting with discovery, and then continuing on to exploration, scoping, building the business case, development, testing and validation, launch and, finally, post launch review. The strategic planning contained in such a

Causes of the French Revolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Causes of the French Revolution - Essay Example Under the shadow of this dilemmatic political concern, French feudal lords proved to be a focus of attention by limiting the power and freedom of a common man. Although, the Lords were a principal target of rural insurrection; they remained on centre stage in the National Assembly's dramatic renunciation of privilege of 1789 thereby forming a continual bone of contention between rural communities who found the early enactments of the legislators to be thoroughly inadequate along with legislators facing continuing rural turbulence; therefore they were an essential element in the revolutionaries' notions of the "feudal regime" being dismantled; they were the concrete subject matter addressed in the first legislation that tested the tensions inherent in the thorny constitutional issue of a royal veto (and they thereby contributed to the difficulty of embodying the Revolution in some monarchical form); they were invoked in the rhetoric with which those in high places addressed the growin g international tension surrounding the revolutionary state, a rhetoric which imbued the revolutionaries with a self-righteous sense of a national mission to liberate the victims of feudalism outside of France, altering the character of European warfare. (Markoff, 1996, p. 3) The best example is the involvement of British and German governments in this concern of revolution. One of the main reasons for the revolution is the authority practiced by Lords which let arrears accumulate on periodic dues for years, then demand that peasants pay up, and accept a land-for-debt swap; under retrait, a lord had the optional right to substitute himself for the purchaser of peasant land; and lords might hold or fabricate a claim on a portion of common land. Many seigniorial rights could thus be put at the service of landholders oriented to a growing agricultural market, to such an extent that some historians have wondered whether peasant contestation might not be better described as a losing, rear-guard struggle against a growing capitalism than a vanguard battle against a dying feudalism in conjunction' with the victorious bourgeoisie. (Markoff, 1996, p. 77) Another factor that leads one to think as the cause of revolution was the corruption of the Lords and noble people, who were not liable to any of the (heavy or normal) taxation system implemented by the government, for being an authoritative privileged class. The dilemma lied within their perception according to which they were not answerable to any official in case of denial of any rule. Financial Downfall Right from Louis XIV to Louis XVI, all the noble personnel enjoyed undue privileges and advantages particularly in the financial matters. These include: 1. Lack of financial accountability in response to government questions, and they never use to bother about it. 2. They had access to government loans with the right to acquire

Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 12

Leadership - Essay Example These situational theories are highly dependent upon factors like the particular situation, task, people, environmental variables and organization. Fiedler had proposed a situational theory, which proposed that there is no singular way of handling particular situation (Davidson and Omar 1352-1706).The different leadership approaches adopted by the managers at varied situations have different impact on the employee morale and performance (Dong and Liu 1352-1706). When a leader adopts autocratic approach, there is negative impact on the employees’ performance and outcome. When a leader adopts transformational and goal setting leadership, there is an increase in the employee performance and morale. Although, there is no singular leadership theory, which would help to increase the organizational outcome, moral and performance of the employees, yet the management of the organization needs to focus on application of several leadership theories. A distinction should be made between the task and relationship oriented managers. Task oriented managers lay emphasis on the tasks in hand, than on the enhancement of the leader member relationship (Fish 1352-1760). These kind of managers focus on the organizational structure, task delegated to the members and the position and power of the employees. It has been observed that the employee performance and morale increased with the motivation received from the managers. The employee morale and performance is also dependent on the way the manager conducts themselves and motivate the employees of the organization. The organizational outcome is also directly related and proportional to the motivation and the guidance of the leaders (Fontaine 125-135). The development plan would be to implement leadership program, which would highlight the basic leadership approaches like transformational, goal setting theories, which Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 37 Leadership - Essay Example The chosen leaders need to have enough knowledge on the forms of leadership that will foster student learning and teachers’ cooperation. This paper seeks to discuss key characteristics reflected in teacher leadership that positive impact on teachers. Theory of leadership is a fundamental characteristic of teacher leaders. The concept of leadership is a vital organ when it comes to development of effective leadership. The fundamental distinctions of leadership models are providing direction and exercising influence. The different ways employed in carrying out or executing these functions is what makes a leadership theory (Wilmore, 2007). Capturing the attention of school personnel is an important aspect in leadership. The above is a significant characteristic factor that contributes greatly to positive teacher leadership. In most institutions, students and teachers are found to posses low attention to initiatives from the leaders. In effecting leadership, such leaders should be able to capture the attention of these teachers and students in a variety of ways. The leaders can engage in using formative and summative student assessments aligned along the new standards (Wilmore, 2007). The leaders should develop capacity building. As much as assessment captures teachers and students attention, must a robust response to the dilemmas and conflicts created in order to generate productive change. Effective response is brought through development of a strong, in-house, systematically aligned, professional development strategies (Wilmore, 2007). The leaders should create and develop a sustained competitive edge in their jurisdictions. When the leaders create competitive but interactive forums among the teachers and the students, they will be able to sensitize on the positive impacts of their leaderships. Positive creation of competition facilitates empowerment of the teachers towards performing their tasks. Empowerment fosters accountability

September 11th the terrorist attack Essay Example for Free

September 11th the terrorist attack Essay The terrorist attack on September 11 will always be remember as the most terrifying day in American History. These attacks left people around the world with feeling of disbeliefs and anger. As consequences, many of American people are blaming all Muslim citizens for the attacks, accusing them as terrorists. There are an estimated of 3 million muslins living in the United States. The majority of them practice the Islam religion. Islam is a religion that means peace with ones heart, mind and soul. It also means peace with god and to live according to the sacred book. Unluckily, most Muslim people in America share the same religion as the terrorist organization, led by Osama bin Laden, who is the primary suspect for the September 11 attack. As result, many Muslim American are paying a high price for their similarities with the terrorist. They are being humiliated, harassed and discriminated against. There are more than 200 cases of hate crimes reported in Arabic American anti Discrimination Society since the attacks. For instance, a news station reported a week after the attack an Arab American passenger was kicked off the airplane because of the way she looks. In addition, some on these incident children are the most affected. Muslim children because they are more sensible and constantly interacting with their peers, especially on public school. I have seemed discrimination against Muslim people in my classroom at PCCC. One day after the attack a classmate thought it would be funny to point at on Muslim classmate. I did not find it funny, instead I found very insulting toward her, especially because I know her and I know she is not bad. All these case are true history and people live constantly in pain. Many of them are people with dream and ambition. On September 11 every one saw how destruction could be done in a powerful nation like America. Unfortunately, these events have left many loses including lives of people and economically impact. But we also learned that not all Muslim are terrorist. They are peaceful people like you and me.

What Ways Does An Individuals Behaviour Change?

What Ways Does An Individuals Behaviour Change? This essay will explore whether an individuals behaviour truly changes when they are part of a group through the consideration of various perspectives, methods and underpinning epistemological assumptions and will take the viewpoint that an individuals behaviour does change when s/he is part of a group, however it is necessary to consider the context, such as societal and cultural factors and the importance of experience, interactions, social norms and values as one branch of social psychology, or one form of experimentation cannot fully predict or explain group and individual behaviour. The most prominent debates, theories and studies in relation to group behaviour will be discussed from a multi-perspective position, mainly exploring the social and cognitive aspects of group behaviour, as well as the methodology of experimentation and how group behaviour is measured. This will ensure that a reductionist approach to the subject is avoided. Key factors involved in group behaviour incl ude; obedience, conformity, groupthink, social identity theory (Tajfel, 1979), prejudice, stereotypes and schemas, which will be discussed and evaluated alongside relevant research throughout the essay. This is due to how these factors influence how an individuals behaviour changes under group influence, for example how Aschs line test portrayed the effects of majority influence (Asch, 1952). A group has been defined by some theorists as two or more individuals who perceive themselves as being members of the group or social category (Turner, 1982; Brown, 2000). Group behaviour refers to a situation in which individuals interact in small or large groups, within these groups there may be certain norms, values which are internalised within the individual (Vygotsky, 1978), communication patterns and status differentials. The majority of research conducted in the area of group behaviour is mainly based in the experimental psychology perspective; however critical and qualitative psychologists argue there is a lesser focus on the study of behaviour in context which ideally involves the acknowledgment of the impact of society and culture on group behaviour (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Fox Prilleltensky, 1997; Gergen, 1973; Himmelweit Gaskell, 1990; Renshon Duckitt, 2000), social roles, environments, experiences, relationships, and a movement away from laboratory based measurements. Within mainstream psychology there is still a focus on the cognitive and affective aspects of behaviour, whilst individual level processes which are fundamental in social and group processes are not always acknowledged. According to Nafstad Blakar (Nafstad Blakar, 2012); A full-fledged social psychology cannot be based on experimental laboratory research alone. This is because it is necessary to concentrate on methodological approaches for future research as much of the quantitative experimental psychology involved in addressing and measuring group behaviour does not acknowledge core social aspects such as social life, social behaviour and human development as social beings. One key area within group behaviour is obedience. The study of obedience entails the tendency to comply with orders from an authority figure and where group behaviour is concerned obedience entails an individual adapting their actions in order to comply with the groups wishes or rules. Concerned with the atrocities committed during Nazi Germany, Milgram explored the effects of obedience under the influence of authority (Milgram, 1974). Participants, who witnessed the confederate being strapped into a chair with electrodes in another room, were given the role of teacher whilst a confederate of the experimenter was given the role of learner; The teacher was expected to administer an electric shock for every wrong answer in what they were lead to believe was an experiment about learning, the shocks increased at 15 volt increments and when the participant refused to administer the shocks, they were given standard instructions (prods) by the experimenter, who wore a lab coat, therefore ac ting as an authority figure within the group. 65% of participants administered the full 450 volts, suggesting that obedience is related to situational pressures. In order to attempt to explain why individuals would behave in the way they did during the experiment, Milgram proposed the agency theory. The agency theory according to Milgram consists of two states; the autonomous state, in which individuals make decisions on their own ideas and beliefs, and the agentic state, in which in which individuals give up responsibility and defer the responsibility to those of a higher status. Although the agency theory does attempt to explain rare occurrences such as the obedience in events such as the Mai Lai Massacre and Nazi Germany, there may be other explanations for the obedience, as suggested by French and Raven (French Raven, 1959) who suggested there are five different types of power; legitimate power, reward power, coercive power, expert power and referent power. It is also important to note that the agency theory is more of a description of how society works, rather than explaining why individuals obey authority figures against their better j udgement in some situations. The theory of groupthink could also be applied in order to explain the phenomological behaviour in Milgrams study, as groupthink entails group decisions which are often irresponsible, dangerous, made under extreme pressure and dominated by a powerful leader, therefore Milgrams theory alone by not be sufficient in exploring individual and group behaviour. There are several ethical issues within Milgrams study such as the lack of debriefing, the distress caused to the participants and deception about the nature of the study. Also, despite Milgram carrying out several variations of his original experiment, the experiment has methodological flaws. Due to the laboratory setting of the experiment there was a distinct lack of ecological validity as the obedience portrayed in compliance with an authority figure does not necessarily represent and cannot be generalised to real life social interactions. It has been suggested that Milgrams experiment became caught up in the broader processes of psychologisation (De Vos, 2009). This is due to the power of science and the authority of experimentation which is suggested in the study, specifically where the experimenter acts as an authority figure within the peer-group, urging participants to continue with the experiment. Also, it has been argued that the experiment dramatizes peoples capacity for violence (Brannigan, 2004) and only demonstrates a short-term measure of obedience (Stainton Rogers et al, 1995). Taking these points into consideration, the need for a multi-perspective view of group behaviour can be reiterated as a concentration on laboratory experiments alone does not fully account as an explanation of group behaviour and obedience, this is further evidenced by the suggestion that Milgram does not make a concise conclusion concerning the study. We are led to no conclusions about obedience, really, but rather are exhorted [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] to be impressed with the power of your situation as an influence context (Parker, 2000). Further replications of Milgrams original study were conducted in order to address some of the issues which were presented within the experiment, such as ethical issues (Burger 2009) and methodological flaws (Meeus and Raaijmakers, 1995), therefore taking a further qualitative stance on the original study. A solely experimental approach to the study of obedience within individual and group behaviour may not necessarily be useful, although the phenomenon of obedience is portrayed in Milgrams experiment, no true conclusion or explanation is drawn due to a lack of acknowledgement of social, political and cultural factors, and a reliance on quantitative and experimental social psychology. Another area of study within individual and group behaviour is conformity. Conformity is the influence on an individual which may alter their beliefs or behaviour in response to the pressure of a group in order to internalise or fit in with a group. According to Man (Man, 1969) there are three types of conformity; these are normative, which is a desire to be liked by the group, informational, which is a desire to be correct and identification which is conformity to a social role. Aschs well known line study explores normative conformity due to the participants attempts to avoid rejection from the group and informational conformity due to the participants desire to be correct. Asch suggests that an individual will attempt to internalise with a group and display the effects of majority influence (Asch, 1952). The experiment consisted of a participant who was given a selection of lines and was asked to judge which was most similar to a comparison line in the presence of others, who were actually confederates of the experimenter who were instructed to purposely give incorrect answers. 5% of participants conformed to all of the trials, 33% conformed to over half of the trials and 25% did not conform at all. Several variations of the original experiment were conducted; when one confederate was present none of the participants conformed, however when more than three confederates were present strong conformity occurred. This suggests the effects of majority influence and pressure on the individual to act in a manner in accordance to a group, the desire to be liked and avoidance of rejection from the group. Aschs line study distinctly lacked ecological validity due to its artificial laboratory setting, which suggests that the experiment had low ecological validity and may be difficult to generalise to a real-life situation. A replication of Aschs original experiment in which the participants were British engineering, mathematics and chemistry students suggested low reliability within the original study, out of the 396 trials, a participant conformed with the incorrect majority on only one trial.. Aschs experiment has been referred to as a child of its time, due to the social, political and historical context in which Aschs experiment was conducted, as conformity was a social norm during Post-World War Two era, whilst the notion of individualism was rejected (Perrin and Spencer, 1980). The lack of reliability in the study may be due to a change in what is socially acceptable rather than a methodological flaw, and therefore it is of importance to acknowledge social norms and values whilst studying group behaviour as well as the notion that group behaviour cannot be based within experimental psychology alone (Nafstad and Blakar, 2012). One prominent theory which may be applied to real life examples of group behaviour is Social Identity Theory (Tajfel, 1979). Social Identity Theory details how membership to a group gives an individual a sense of social identity, these groups are important in enhancing an individuals self-esteem and pride, therefore individuals may attempt to increase the status of their own group, or simply discriminate against an out-group through social categorisation. Discrimination against an out-group occurs through prejudice and stereotypes which occurs through three cognitive processes; social categorisation, which is the decision about which group you belong to, social identification, which is more overt identification with the in-group, and social comparison which is comparison to the out-group which is believed to be inferior, this in turn increases the self-esteem of the in-group (Tajfel Turner, 1979). Although it can be argued that Social Identity Theory can provide a concise and full e xplanation for the formation if in-groups and out-groups, it does not clearly define how the process occurs and also is not a predictor of behaviour (Hogg, 2000). Therefore, although Social Identity Theory can explain some aspects of group behaviour, it may not be applicable to real world phenomenon as it cannot provide full explanation for real-life group behaviour such as acts of terrorism. In real-world research, such as a psychological approach to terrorism, it has been suggested that it is necessary not to allow cognitive biases to cloud the analysis of political situations (Abrahms, 2006; Scheier, 2007). Therefore, experimental psychology alone may not be useful in analysing and explaining real-life situations. However, Zimbardo (Zimbardo, 2002) argues that terrorism is all about psychology as it is key to understanding the motives, values and ideology of terrorists; therefore it is clear there is debate as to how real-life examples of group behaviour should be studied. Although many of the most prominent studies in the area of group and individual behaviour are based within experimental psychology, there is a tendency for discursive, critical and qualitative psychologists to argue that there is a need for the exploration of social norms, values and experiences, rather than the notion held by experimental psychology which simply acknowledges that these factors have an affect. When considering the experiments and debates which are discussed within the study of group behaviour, in order for future research to attempt to provide a more concise explanations of group behaviour it may be appropriate to concentrate on people on an individual level within context as well as their actions in a group situation, for example acknowledging their experiences, relationships, values and social roles in order to draw conclusions as to why individuals act in accordance to a group instead of simply displaying extreme phenomena such as in the cases of Milgram and Zimba rdo. It has been suggested that current mainstream social psychology is primarily characterised by the study of the interactions between the individual and groups through experimental study and as a result of this, context such as social and cultural levels have not been represented to their true extent (Doise, 1982/1986). References Abrahms, M. 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